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Nanotechnology is a rapidly evolving field that has the potential to revolutionise food systems and counter the present-day challenge of food security. It envisages taking agriculture from the era of indiscriminate natural resource use and environmental degradation to the brave new world of advanced systems with enhanced material use efficiency and targeted applications to reduce crop losses caused due to abiotic-biotic stresses as well as to give due considerations to the environment. To manage plant diseases and insect pests, pesticides are inevitably used in agriculture. However, the higher dosage of these chemicals on a per hectare basis has resulted in many environmental and health hazards. To tackle the conventional pesticide related issues, a new field of science called nanotechnology has led to the development of nanopesticides that have less active ingredients, but better efficiency. The nanopesticides contain the carrier molecule or the active nanosized ingredient with a very high surface area to the volume property that provides them unique exploitable-advantages. Several formulations, viz., nanoemulsions, nanosuspensions, nanogels, metal compound-based nanopesticides, have been developed for different modes of action and vivid applications. The biggest advantage comes due to the small size of the particles that help in properly spreading the ingredients on the pest surface and, thus, producing a better action than conventional pesticides. The use of nanoparticles in the form of nanopesticides, nanofertilisers, and nano delivery systems is on the increase day by day due to their higher efficiency and reduced dosage requirements. However, human beings and other organisms are also getting exposed to the nano-entities during the application or afterwards. The interactions of these engineered nano-entities with biological systems are relatively unknown thus far. Therefore, before their wider usage in crop production and protection, a better understanding of their interactions, and adverse effects, if any, is also crucial for a sustainable transition.

Among the many biotic factors with adverse effects on Solanum lycopersicum (tomato), diseases caused by fungi, viruses and nematodes are notable. Since the genome of S. lycopersicum became available, efforts have continued to identify the genes and proteins associated with the plant defence activity. One such gene family belongs to TIR-NBS-LRR (TNL), a subfamily of larger NBS-LRR genes. In total, 27 full-length TNLs were identified via genome wide analysis. Four pairs of segmental duplication events were observed involving different pairs of chromosomes, except the pairing of Solyc02g082050-Solyc02g032650, which were both present on chromosome 2. More than twenty nine percent (29.63%) of the genes were localised on chromosome 1 alone. Hormone-mediated biotic stress-responsive cis-regulatory elements were detected for methyl-jasmonate, salicylic acid (TCA motif) and ethylene (ERE motif). Differential gene expression was observed for many genes under different plant tissues and biotic stresses. The upregulation of many genes including SlBS4 was observed against Alternaria solani attacks in the disease tolerant varieties. Altogether, the results suggested that TNLs play a significant role in plant defence under biotic stress.

Weeds are the major menace to agriculture, which greatly impact crop growth and development, resulting in economic yield loss or crop failures. Therefore, it is indispensable to take up appropriate weed management practices to prevent the effects of weeds on crops. Chemical herbicides have immense potential for effective control of weeds, but, in the long run, the persistent nature of herbicides adversely affects the soil microbes and also that terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Bioherbicides are products derived from plant extracts, allelochemicals or microbes and their secondary metabolites with weed-suppressing abilities. Most microbial bioherbicides are based on fungi and its active ingredients, which successfully control weeds with different mode of actions. Moreover, the toxins or secondary metabolites the fungi produce also possess herbicidal properties. So, exploring the fungal pathogens and their toxins for managing weeds seems to be a feasible and eco-friendly way for the management of weeds. There is a wider scope for utilizing fungi and their secondary metabolites as mycoherbicides, which have the potential to replace hazardous chemical herbicides in the near future. This review article mainly emphasizes the scope of mycoherbicides and explores the fungal secondary metabolites for eco-friendly weed control.

Tomato spotted wilt orthotospovirus (TSWV) is destroying tomato and pepper resistance all over the world, including Antalya (Türkiye). Two greenhouses that show infection of TSWV in the Serik (coastal) and Elmali (highland) areas were chosen for research between 2019 and 2021 to better understand the disease's life cycle. During the surveys, we focused on weed hosts to better understand TSWV disease's cycle. TSWV infection was determined in 58 peppers, 34 tomatoes, 270 weeds, and 20 other vegetable samples. Weed samples revealed essentially no symptoms, however, grown plants showed classic TSWV symptoms. The Asteraceae family had the highest infection rate among infected weeds, followed by weed species from the Poaceae and Solanaceae families. In addition, to determine the viral strain in the infected plant samples, qRT-PCR and Melt-curve analysis were done using a specially designed primer pair for the study. This primer identifies the point mutation on the NSm-movement protein in the viral genome's medium segment. The non-resistance breaking isolate of TSWV was included in the optimisation studies to evaluate differences between the two isolates at two thermal melting values established by this comparison. These findings demonstrated that the kits, procedures, and primers employed in this investigation can serve as a quick and reliable diagnostic tool for identifying TSWV isolates and that weeds are a key intermediate source for new TSWV infection, as confirmed by sequence data.

This article focuses on the occurrence of powdery mildews in the Lamiaceae family in the Czech Republic. A comprehensive analysis of morphological characteristics supported by molecular analysis of partial ITS sequences and analysis of host species gained important insights regarding the occurrence and diversity of powdery mildews. Thirty-four plant samples of the Lamiaceae family infected by powdery mildew collected in the Czech Republic between 2015–2022 were analysed. In these samples, the occurrence of all newly described species within the former Golovinomyces biocellatus complex was confirmed (G. biocellatus, G. salviae, G. neosalviae and G. monardae), and Neoërysiphe galeopsidis was also verified. Moreover, our study expands the already reported host species list of G. biocellatus complex within the Lamiaceae family.

Verticillium dahliae is a broad host-range pathogen that causes vascular wilt in plants. The Verticillium wilt disease severity assay on plants caused by V. dahliae mainly includes two methods, one is a plant disease grade classification based on disease severity statistics [namely the disease index (DI)], and the other is the V. dahliae biomass quantification in plants (namely the fungal biomass). In this study, the relationships of pathogenicity with the DI, pathogenicity with the biomass, and the correlation analysis of the DI and relative fungal biomass were analysed. The results showed that pathogenicity assessment of V. dahliae strains using the DI method was able to give an intuitive reflection of the pathogenic ability for defoliating and non-defoliating strains; moreover, the method of quantitative PCR for fungal biomass also had high repeatability and stability. As a whole, the correlation coefficient between the DI and fungal biomass values of 28 strains was 0.728, indicating that the two data sets were highly correlated; however, the correlation coefficients of the defoliating strains and non-defoliating strains were only 0.5384 and 0.4547, respectively. In conclusion, the correlation coefficient between the DI and the fungal biomass presented high consistency, which could provide some meaningful exploration for the more accurate pathogenicity identification of V. dahliae.

This study aimed to examine the antifungal effects of nine monoterpenes on Sclerotinia sclerotiorum via the mycelial growth rate method. The effects of carvacrol on the morphological structures of hyphae were investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The oxalic acid (OA), total protein contents, and the activity of cell wall-degrading enzymes, including chitinase, cellulase and β-1,3-glucanase, were assessed. The results showed that the antifungal rates of carvacrol, thymol and eugenol reached 100% at a concentration of 400 mg/L, and the EC50 values of carvacrol, thymol, and eugenol were 43.40, 56.22, and 86.63 mg/L, respectively. The treatment of S. sclerotiorum with carvacrol had no significant effect on sclerotia formation, but the mycelial surface was shrivelled, uneven and broken, with cytoplasm flowing out. The OA content of S. sclerotiorum was significantly reduced to 133.78 µg/mL after treatment with carvacrol. Additionally, the total protein content of S. sclerotiorum mycelia in the carvacrol treatment group was significantly reduced to 15.67 µg/mL compared with that of the control group, and the activity of cellulase in the carvacrol treatment group was significantly higher than that in the control group.

Insecticidal interventions at critical stages of maize are an important strategy for managing invasive insect pest fall armyworm (FAW) Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith). Conventional spraying systems cannot be used over larger areas, and the insecticide application using unmanned aerial vehicles is becoming popular among peasants. As the FAW resides inside the maize whorls, targeted insecticide application is necessary for effective management. The efficacy of (UAV) spray with different types of nozzles was compared with the conventional spray system, namely high-volume spray and Control droplet applicator. The other spray systems' droplet density, efficacy, and residues of insecticides in plants, soil and water were studied. The UAV droplet density up to 5 m swath recorded no significant variation for both nozzles. A UAV with an atomizer nozzle was as effective as a high-volume spray in reducing the FAW infestation. The residue analysis of leaf samples from the study area revealed more residues in the control droplet applicator and UAV atomizer nozzle. The per cent reduction of initial deposits in the top, middle and bottom maize leaves was least in the UAV atomizer nozzle. The insecticide residues in the study sample area were also below the detectable limit. UAV usage in maize saves time and reduces FAW damage as that of high-volume sprayers.

Meloidogyne hapla is a serious pest of many cultivated plants. In response to the economic significance of the species, efforts are being made to develop a new method to reduce its harmful effects on crops. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of diffusates from seeds of selected species of legumes on the motility of second-stage juveniles and to evaluate the effect of meal from seeds of selected species of legume on the capacity to infect the roots of tomato plants by the J2 stage. The experiment examined the effect of diffusates on the motility of the J2 stage performed in Petri dishes, at temperatures of 10 °C, 17 °C and 21 °C. The evaluation of the J2 stage infectivity was estimated in a pot experiment performed under controlled conditions of 20 ± 1 °C. The pots were filled with sterile substrate mixed with meal from the seeds of selected plants at 1%, 5% and 10% of the substrate weight. The studies carried out in the Petri dishes showed varying effects of the seed diffusates from selected legume plants on the motility of the J2 stage of Meloidogyne hapla. J2 were found to lose their motility within 24 h after immersion in water containing seed diffusates from Melilotus albus, Trifolium pratense T. repens, in the temperature ranges investigated (10 °C, 17 °C and 21 °C). However, in a mixture of seed diffusates and soil filtrate from the root zone of tomato plants, the absence of motility in the second-stage juveniles was observed after 24 h at 17 °C and 21 °C, with seed diffusates from Lotus corniculatus, Medicago sativa, Medicago × varia, Melilotus officinalis, as well as Onobrychis viciifolia, Ornithopus sativus, Vicia sativa, used in the mixture. Galega officinalis Risa (GoR) seed diffusates were found to have an inhibiting effect on the motility of the J2 stage of M. hapla 24 h following the immersion of the J2 stage in the solution of the soil filtrate containing tomato root diffusates, at 21 °C. The J2 stage were not rendered immotile in all the experiment set-ups involving the seeds of V. faba, Lupinus spp., likewise in the control set-ups. In the pots studied, a significant effect of the addition of legume seed meal on the development of M. hapla nematodes and tomato plants was found. The introduction of Lotus corniculatus, Onobrychis viciifolia and Vicia sativa seed meal into the substrate in the proportion of 1%, 5% and 10% resulted in the inhibition of the J2 stage penetration into the roots of tomato plants at temperatures of 17 °C and 21 °C. With the admixture of the M. sativa and T. repens seed meal, within the temperature range investigated, no nematode infection was observed in the roots, regardless of the seed meal content in the substrate. As regards to the fresh weight, tomato plants grown in a substrate containing 1% and 5% of the V. sativa cv. Jaga seed meal were characterised by significantly higher plant weight values as compared to those grown in the control set-up. The obtained results imply that is advisable to expand the scope of research to include other economically important crops damaged by the northern root-knot nematode.

In 2024, the journal Plant Protection Science (PPS) completes 60 years of publication (1965–2024). Its roots extend back to the year 1921. In recent years, PPS has developed into an international scientific journal focused on all aspects of plant protection science, published exclusively in English, and with an international editorial board. The publisher is the Czech Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), celebrating its 100th anniversary (1924–2024). PPS is one of eleven agricultural journals published by CAAS. On its 50th anniversary, PPS published a detailed overview of its history and development. This latest critical review summarises developments during the last ten years; however, in special cases, also with a longer-term perspective. During the last decade, PPS has made impressive progress and is now among the world's key scientific journals. Recently, the journal has been added to the indexing and abstracts of many international databases, e.g. BIOSIS Previews, SCOPUS and Web of Science. In 2014, PPS had an impact factor of 0.597, but during the last few years, PPS's IF has ranged between 1.3 and 1.4 (for 2023, IF = 1.7), with the possibility of further increase. Each year, PPS is published quarterly, with a total of around 40 papers (original papers, reviews, short communications, biographical notices, and book reviews). Per year, about 70–80% of papers by authors/co-authors from abroad are published (Europe, America, Asia, Australia and Oceania). In the final part of this presentation, we describe some recent achievements and discuss key topics related to PPS's future development.

Entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) represent the future of pest control, as they have the capacity to induce serious infections in insects, trigger epizootics, and effectively manage insect populations. The study aimed to identify and test indigenous EPF isolates against Tribolium confusum using soil samples from Northwestern and central Saudi Arabia. Galleria mellonella larvae were used as insect bait to collect EPF from soil samples from date palm groves, fruit groves, and maise fields. Only 27.3% of soil samples tested positive for palm grove-originating EPFs. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) identified the cultured fungi as Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana. Tribolium confusum pathogenicity was assessed using nine local fungal isolates. Different fungus isolates were tested for their pathogenicity on larval and adult T. confusum. The results showed that M. anisopliae MaSA-2, MaSA-3, and MaSA-4 had infection rates of 85%, 85%, and 75%, respectively, in last-instar T. confusum larvae and 5%, 10%, and 20% in adults within seven days. On the other hand, B. bassiana BbSA-4 showed a 100% infection rate in T. confusum larvae, while BbSA-5, BbSA-6, BbSA-7, BbSA-8, and BbSA-9 had infection rates of 70%, 80%, 80%, 75%, and 95%, respectively. In terms of adult mortality rates, B. bassiana BbSA-4, BbSA-5, BbSA-6, BbSA-7, BbSA-8, and BbSA-9 had rates of 25%, 35%, 35%, 20%, 20%, and 40%, respectively. The research findings show that indigenous B. bassiana and M. anisopliae fungus isolates successfully eliminated T. confusum larvae, although their effectiveness against adults was limited.

The effectiveness of pheromone lures for Grapholita molesta (Busck 1916) from Propher (Czech Republic) and Pherobank (Netherlands), the attractiveness of green and transparent pheromone traps and the representation of non-target species were evaluated in three study areas of southern Moravia (Czech Republic) in 2019–2021 (24 traps per year). A total of 6 536 Grapholita molesta and 946 individuals of 17 non-target species were collected. Grapholita molesta was frequently captured in green delta traps with a Pherobank pheromone lure. Therefore, pheromone lures from different manufacturers have different efficacy and require the independent setting of harmfulness thresholds. An overview of non-target species recorded by other authors was compiled. Among the non-target species, morphologically similar species of Tortricidae dominated, causing considerable problems in the signalling of control measures of the target species.

This study focused on evaluating the effectiveness of seed treatments and different sugar beet varieties in controlling flea beetles (Chaetocnema tibialis) and sugar beet weevils (Asproparthenis punctiventris) in Croatia. The field trials were conducted in Vukovar-Sirmia County and targeted the developmental stages of sugar beet from BBCH 12 to BBCH 31. Although the sowing was done within the optimal period, no clear pattern between germination of the seeds and susceptibility was identified as the results showed different responses at different development stages and among the three variants. The experimental design comprised no insecticide, thiamethoxam + tefluthrin, cyantraniliprole, flupyradifurone and Beauveria bassiana + Metarhizium anisopliae. The results show that the treatments with thiamethoxam + tefluthrin effectively reduced pest damage only at the critical stages of development. The current findings suggest that While some of these alternative methods offer good control, they may prove insufficient when applied individually. Hence, integrating them into a comprehensive pest management approach could be necessary for effectively safeguarding sugar beet yields. Further studies should explore potential additive or synergistic benefits to enhance these strategies.

The brown marmorated stink bug [Halyomorpha halys (Stål)] is an invasive pest species. This polyphagous insect, native to Eastern Asia, threatens various cultivated plant species. Control methods often rely on chemical insecticides, but the decreasing use of such agents has prompted a shift towards preventive measures. As a defence mechanism, natural compounds released by plants have gained attention for their potential deterrent or attractant properties. In this study, we evaluated the response of the brown marmorated stink bug to selected chemical substances, including citronellal, hexanal, nonanol, β-caryophyllene, linalool, ocimene, nerolidol, terpinolen, α-humulene, dimethyl sulfide, aggregation pheromone, and ethanol. The experiment was conducted using an olfactometer. Two experiments were performed, comparing the substances against dimethyl sulfoxide and then refining the selection based on initial results; in the first series, nerolidol, ocimene, and terpinolene exhibited promising results as complete deterrents. The second series confirmed nerolidol as the most effective deterrent among all tested substances. These findings contribute to developing preventive strategies for managing the brown marmorated stink bug and reducing reliance on chemical insecticides.

To elucidate the genetic factors contributing to melon resistance against Phelipanche aegyptiaca and comprehend the role of differentially resistant materials in responding to changes in P. aegyptiaca parasitisation, we investigated the P. aegyptiaca-resistant line K16 and the susceptible line K27. The parasitism rate of P. aegyptiaca was assessed at 25 days. Results revealed significant differences in parasitisation rates between K16 (15.35%) and K27 (34.2%). We compared inoculated K16 and K27 to their respective controls through transcriptome analysis and contrasted inoculated K16 with inoculated K27. Eight hundred eighteen genes exhibited differential expression across all comparisons. Gene ontology (GO) functional enrichment analysis revealed that differentially expressed genes were significantly enriched in nitrate transport and assimilation, cellular components, extracellular regions, binding and enzyme activities. KEGG pathway enrichment underscored the importance of phytohormone signaling, phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, linolenic acid and linoleic acid metabolism, cyanoamino acid metabolism and nitrogen metabolism in the interaction between melon and P. aegyptiaca. Nine genes potentially associated with P. aegyptiaca resistance were identified, encoding cytochrome protein P450, peroxidases, β-glucosidase, acyltransferase family proteins, histidine phosphotransfer protein, and D-type cyclins. This study aims to provide insights into the mechanism of P. aegyptiaca parasitism on melons and offers implications for breeding resistant varieties

TCP transcription factor is a plant-specific gene family which plays important roles in many developmental control pathways, regulating secondary metabolites and plant responses to abiotic and biotic stresses. Nevertheless, this gene family remains unknown in Scutellaria baicalensis. Here, by identifying and analysing all the TCP transcription factor family members based on the transcriptome of S. baicalensis, a total of 19 SbTCP genes were obtained following gene classification, the phylogenetic relationship, conserved domain structure, functional differentiation, and an expression activity analysis. Phylogenetic analysis grouped the SbTCP genes into two subfamilies; we also found that SbTCP with the same motif structure clustered together in the evolutionary tree, and these results suggest that SbTCP proteins with the same gene structure have similar functions. Gene Ontology (GO) categorised the SbTCP genes into 17 functional subcategories, suggesting that they have diversified in functionality, even though their putative proteins share a number of conserved motifs. After the MeJA and SA treatments, the expression of SbTCP candidate genes containing MeJA and SA promoter elements was significantly higher or lower compared with the control, indicating that these candidate SbTCP genes could respond to different concentrations of MeJA and SA treatments. These comprehensive data provide a reference for elucidating the functions of TCP transcription factor family in the growth, development, and MeJA and SA stress response of S. baicalensis, this study can create a new avenue for understanding the role of TCP gene family in S. baicalensis.

Brassica and related crops are one of the most important and widely growing crops around the world. They have very broad utilization in human activities as fresh and processed food, fodder and forage of animals, condiments and ornamental plants. This group of plants belongs to one of the oldest domesticated crops with very wide geographic distribution and history of growing and human utilization. Brassicas are also very diverse from taxonomical and genetic viewpoint with rather long history of breeding. The First Edition of this book was published by CABI in 2006, this volume received very high evaluation and by reviewers was considered as “an exemplary job in making horticultural sense“. However, during the last two decades there was made enormous progress in research, breeding, growing and practical aspects of utilization of these crops. This newest edition of the book represents a very impressive, comprehensive and complex treatment of all the most important aspects related to vegetable brassicas and related crucifers used in horticulture.

With regret, we have to inform the community of plant pathologists, plant virologists, and plant protection scientists. Assoc. Prof. Jaroslav Polák, a former and long-time Plant Protection Science editorial board member, passed away on May 20, 2024.

The study has been conducted at Research Farm, College of Agriculture, Gwalior (M.P.), in the summers of 2021 and 2022. In the summers of 2021 and 2022, the crop was first infested by the shoot and fruit borer on the 10^th and 13^th standard meteorological week (SMW). The infestation persisted until the 23^rd and 24^th SMW, respectively. During the first year, the 15^th SMW had the highest infestation rate for shoot damage, 15.76%, while the 18^th SMW had the highest infestation rate for shoot damage, 15.07%, in the second year. Whereas fruit damage per cent is calculated based on number and weight, and its peak per cent infestation was noted on the 22nd SMW with 31.67% based on number, 30.12% based on weight during the first year, and 30.34% based on number and 29.95% based on weight during the second year, which was noted on the 23^rd SMW. There was a significant positive correlation between maximum temperature and shoot damage percentage (r = 0.62) and minimum temperature and fruit damage percentage based on number (r = 0.87) and weight (r = 0.88) during the first year of study. However, during the first year of the study, there was a negative association (r = –0.68) between morning relative humidity and shoot damage per cent. The following year's research revealed a highly significant positive link between maximum temperature, minimum temperature, and evaporation with fruit damage (%) based on the number (r = 0.64, 0.92, and 0.82) and based on weight (r = 0.63, 0.92, and 0.82), respectively.

This study represents the first evidence of the bacterial blight caused by Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis (Xaj) on walnut trees in Podgorica (Montenegro). Disease symptoms appeared on leaves in the form of dark, angular leaf spots surrounded by yellow-green haloes and lesions spread across the whole leaf. Isolated bacteria were preliminarily identified using PCR with pathovar-specific primer pair XajF/XajR and further characterised based on multi-locus sequence analysis with nine housekeeping genes (fusA, gapA, gltA, gyrB1, lepA, rpoD, dnaK, fyuA, and gyrB2). Montenegrin walnut isolates were homogeneous among themselves and the most closely related to different X. arboricola strains originating from Juglans regia isolated elsewhere. The pathogenicity of isolates was confirmed on walnut leaves, fruits, and branches. All inoculations resulted in the formation of necrotic lesions that initially developed at the site of bacteria entry, with later developing chlorotic areas on leaves along the leaf veins. This finding of Xaj causing leaf blight symptoms on walnuts in Montenegro highlights its expanding distribution across Europe and indicates a potential threat to walnut plantations in Montenegro.

Bark beetle Pityokteines spinidens (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) is widespread across Europe. We identified this species as a pest of Tsuga canadensis in western Bohemia's Americká zahrada National Nature Monument Arboretum. This discovery suggests that P. spinidens could infest any conifer within the Abietoideae subfamily. Given its status as a known pest of various Abies species, its potential impact on related conifers warrants further attention.

The brown rot of apple and stone fruits caused by Monilinia fructigena is a widespread disease causing serious losses in fruit production. The most common way the pathogen spreads is via airborne conidia. Therefore, air samplers can effectively monitor its occurrence. In this study, we have conducted a comparative sampling of two cheap air samplers – rotorod spore traps called ROTTRAP 52 and AMETRAP. An optimised quantitative real-time PCR assay with a hydrolysis probe evaluated samples. 14 concurrent samplings were positive in all cases, showing higher spore counts in almost all AMETRAP samples obtained under various weather conditions. The daily maximum air temperature was the only significant meteorological variable positively affecting the recorded spore counts. Both rotorod samplers are an efficient and economic option for horticulturists and researchers for M. fructigena air inoculum monitoring.

Neoscytalidium Dimidiatum isolates are the most pathogens associated with sooty canker and dieback in the stem and twigs of Eucalyptus and Chinaberry trees in the Kurdistan region of Iraq. Young trees showed branch dieback and yellowing leaves. The symptoms were further developed to sooty canker and dieback appeared on the main branch and trunk. N. dimidiatum colonies on potato dextrose agar were dense white at first and became dark gray to black within seven to ten days. Arthric dark brown conidia (6.6x 4.3 µm) were observed in the chain of mycelium. The color of the colonies was white at the beginning, then eventually turned greenish in seven days, and finally became black. The fungus produced white to olivaceous aerial mycelium with chains of chlamydospores and arthroconidia. Conidia were initially hyaline, ellipsoidal to globose, 4.1-9.8 m × 2.8-3.5m, with muriform septa. The inoculated Eucalyptus and Chinaberry seedlings displayed necrosis streaks along with the barks and xylem of the inoculation points. Combined dataset of internal transcribed spacer (ITS), Nuclear Ribosomal Large Subunite (LSU), and Beta tublin 2a (Bt2a) using Maximum Likelihood and Maximum Parsimony analysis support the monophyletic on Neoscytalidium dimidiatum isolates from Iraq (N. hyalinum (No. B21), and Neoscytalidium novaehollandiae (No. B22)). This is the first time to report Neoscytalidium dimidiatum on Chinaberry in Iraq.

Plant viruses, and aphids as their vectors, are limiting factors in sugar beet production. Viral plant diseases are currently impossible to treat but knowing the flight patterns of aphids can help in reducing the number of potential virus vectors. Monitoring of aphid flight activities in sugar beet fields was done using yellow water traps from April to the end of November. During the two years of investigation, a total of 5514 specimens from 75 different taxa were collected. The highest number of individuals was recorded at the end of May/beginning of June at all localities. This is the period when sugar beet develops intensively, so the risk of virus infection is the highest. The most numerous species were Aphis fabae Scopoli, Aphis spiraecola Patch., Phyllaphis fagi (L.), Myzus persicae (Sulzer), Rhopalosiphum padi (L.), Sitobion avenae (Fabr.), Acyrthosiphon pisum (Haris) and Therioaphis trifolii (Monell). The most important vectors are A. fabae, A. spiraecola and M. persicae. Aphis fabae is a species that feeds on sugar beet and causes significant damage both by feeding and by its vector activity. Myzus persicae was the most abundant in autumn, A. spiraecola was present throughout the whole flight-monitoring period. Among the caught aphids, twelve species alien to Europe were collected.

We investigated the compatibility between adzuki bean and Bradyrhizobium USDA strains and the relation between the genetic diversity of indigenous adzuki bean-nodulating bradyrhizobia and their geographical distribution in Japan. Six Bradyrhizobium USDA strains were used in the inoculation test, and B. elkanii USDA 94 showed higher symbiotic efficiency than other strains. Two adzuki bean cultivars were used to isolate indigenous adzuki bean-nodulating bradyrhizobia. Their genetic diversity and community structure were analyzed by restriction fragment length polymorphisms of PCR amplicons to target the 16S-23S rRNA gene internal transcribed spacer region, using 11 USDA Bradyrhizobium strains as reference strains. Furthermore, we performed diversity analysis, non-metric multidimensional scaling analysis based on the Chao index, and polar ordination analysis to explain the relation between community structure and geographical distribution of the adzuki bean-nodulating bradyrhizobia. The major clusters were Bj123 in Hokkaido and Kyoto, Bd110 in Fukushima and Shimane A, Be76 in Shimane B and Fukuoka, Bj6 in Miyazaki, and Bj6 and BeOK in Okinawa. Japan's indigenous adzuki bean-nodulating bradyrhizobial community was strongly and significantly correlated with latitude, longitude, annual mean temperature, and electrical conductivity. This result suggests that the adzuki bean-nodulating bradyrhizobial community is influenced by multiple environmental factors.

Centaurea cyanus is an annual weed mostly infesting winter cereals and rape. The aim of the study was to provide insights into the association between the seed germination characteristics and the herbicide sensitivity in C. cyanus in the presence of the genetic background control. Four populations of this species resistant to acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibitors were tested. A germination study was conducted in a growth cabinet. Plants were sprayed at the 2- to 3-leaf stage with a field dose of florasulam (5 g/ha). There were four herbicide treatments dates, which included plants that germinated up to the seventh day, between eight and 12, 13 and 15, 16 and 20 days of the germination study. The germination dynamics of the four tested populations of C. cyanus resistant to florasulam was diversified. Three of them reached their maximum germination on the fourth day after sowing, however, the germination of the fourth population was spread over time with the highest number of germinated seeds found seven and twelve days after sowing. The germination time of the plants belonging to the resistant C. cyanus populations differentiated their reaction to florasulam. The conducted study indicated that the germination biology of ALS inhibitor-resistant populations of C. cyanus is diverse, which makes it difficult to introduce universal management strategies of this species into agricultural practice. Integration of control methods is recommended, including delaying the crop sowing date.

Chemical fungicides can cause drug resistance of plant pathogenic fungi, environmental pollution, and potential threats to humans and animals. Therefore, developing low-toxicity, high-efficient and environment-friendly biological control products is critical for green prevention, controlling plant fungal diseases, and maintaining ecological balance. Biocontrol research mainly includes the following aspects: antagonistic microorganisms, fungicidal proteins, RNA interference techniques and botanical fungicides. Significantly, natural products extracted from medicinal plants are valuable repertoire for inhibiting plant fungal diseases. This review systematically reviewed the research advances of using natural products from medicinal plants to inhibit plant pathogenic fungi, including the types of natural products, extraction methods, and antifungal mechanisms. The further prospects for the study and application, which provide the reference for botanical fungicide development and practical application in preventing and controlling plant fungal disease, were also discussed.

The APETALA 2/ethylene response factors (AP2/ERFs) are considered essential in plant disease resistance responses. In this study, a novel eggplant AP2/ERF transcription factor gene, StPti5, was identified and functionally described from wild eggplant (Solanum torvum Sw.). The results of bioinformatics analysis show that StPti5 protein contains a DNA-binding AP2/ERF domain and shares high degree of amino acid similarity with the other known AP2/ERF domain. Subcellular localization assay shows that StPti5 protein was localized in the nucleus. Expression of StPti5 was induced by infection with Verticillium dahliae, ethylene, and methyl jasmonate. Analysis of expression patterns suggests that the function of StPti5 in resistance to Verticillium wilt was most closely linked to ethylene signaling. Overexpression of StPti5 in Arabidopsis thaliana could improve disease resistance to V. dahliae and activate genes linked to the ethylene signaling pathway. Studies on the A. thaliana defence response revealed that the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) increased considerably following overexpression of StPti5. In summary, our analysis suggest that StPti5 gene is a functional gene that could improve eggplant's resistance to V. dahliae.

Mungbean seeds [Vigna radiata (L.)] are easily damaged by insects during storage, and essential oils (EOs) have proved effective for controlling insect infestation. This research study assessed the bioactivity of EO from Jasminum sambac (L.) Aiton against Callosobruchus maculatus (F.). The chemical composition of EO was analysed by a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer (GC-MS). All experiments were conducted following a completely randomised design (CRD) with four replications of the residual contact and seed dressing bioassays. Results indicated that J. sambac EO contained 35 compounds (97.587%), with the main component 3-hexen-1-ol benzoate. Residual contact toxicity LC50 values of this EO on adult C. maculatus at 24, 48, and 72 h were 5.01, 4.00, and 3.13 µL/mL, respectively. J. sambac EO at 8 µL/L showed the highest residual contact efficacy against C. maculatus, killing up to 100% in 72 hours. The highest concentration of J. sambac EO (1 mL/kg) gave optimal protection against C. maculatus within 4 and 5 days with 100% mortality. This concentration showed 100% inhibition of adult F1 progeny emergence, with no seed damage and weight loss of V. radiata L. after 30 days of exposure, and not significantly different from 0.8 mL/kg. Results indicated that J. sambac EO effectively prevented C. maculatus infestation and it could be used as an alternative to commercial chemical insecticides.

Glyoxal oxidase (GLOX, EC 1.2.3.15) is a class of hydrogen peroxide synthases involved in lignin degradation. Several GLOX genes of biotrophic and necrotrophic phytopathogenic fungi have been confirmed to contribute to fungal growth, development, and pathogenicity. However, the composition, sequence characteristics and functions of genes in the GLOX family of hemi-biotrophic phytopathogenic fungi remain poorly understood. This study identified a GLOX-encoding gene CsGLOX in the hemi-biotrophic phytopathogenic fungus Colletotrichum siamense by bioinformatics analysis and PCR cloning. The encoded protein contains a signal peptide and five cell wall stress-responsive component (WSC) domains at the N terminus, followed by a catalytic structural domain (AA5_1). CsGLOX-deficient mutants were constructed by homologous replacement, which significantly increased the formation of conidia and reduced the pathogenicity and the high-osmotic stress tolerance of the fungus. However, the deletions did not influence fungal filamentous growth. This study proposes that the CsGLOX gene is involved in pathogen conidial formation, pathogenicity, and osmotic stress response, which deepens our understanding of the pathogenic mechanism of hemi-biotrophic phytopathogenic fungus C. siamense.